Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. This warning from philosopher George Santayana carries urgent meaning in the world of corrections. Inside every correctional facility lies the potential for disaster when complacency takes hold and the hard-earned lessons of history are forgotten.
For today’s correctional officers — particularly those new to the profession — the violent uprisings at Attica, the New Mexico State Penitentiary and Lucasville may seem like distant history with little relevance to modern correctional operations. That assumption is dangerously wrong.
The conditions that sparked these deadly prison riots — overcrowding, understaffing, poor communication and unresolved inmate grievances — still plague many U.S. correctional institutions. What has changed is the opportunity to learn from these failures and adopt strategies that reduce the risk of future incidents.
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This article explores three of the most significant prison riots in U.S. history — not as historical footnotes, but as urgent case studies with enduring lessons. By examining what went wrong, how institutional breakdowns occurred, and what warning signs were missed, today’s correctional professionals can better understand the risks they face and how to mitigate them.
Understanding the root causes of past prison riots is key to building safer, more resilient correctional environments. Institutional safety, adequate corrections staffing, proactive communication and strong leadership are essential to preventing violence and protecting the lives of both officers and inmates. Honoring the sacrifices of those who came before means applying these hard-won lessons to modern corrections practice — every day, on every shift.
What is a prison riot?
In the 1996 publication “Preventing and Managing Riots and Disturbances,” the American Correctional Association identified three types of violence and disorder that can occur within correctional institutions. The terms incident, disturbance and riot have since been widely adopted:
- A riot occurs when a significant number of inmates control a significant portion of a facility for a significant amount of time.
- A disturbance is a step down from a riot in that fewer inmates are involved, and there is no control or minimal control of any part of the institution.
- An incident is a step down from a disturbance in that one or a few inmates are involved, and there is no control of any portion of the facility for any amount of time.
What causes prison riots?
Many factors can contribute to prison riots, including poor living conditions, insufficient resources (medical care, food, personal hygiene items), lack of recreational opportunities, perceived injustices, overcrowding, racial tensions, and issues related to security procedures and institutional policies.
Complacency is perhaps the greatest enemy of institutional security. The day-to-day routine of corrections work can lull even experienced officers into a false sense of stability. Yet history has repeatedly shown how quickly order can dissolve into chaos when warning signs go unheeded and operational vigilance wanes.
The Attica prison riot: A deadly turning point in correctional history
One of the most significant and deadly prison uprisings in U.S. history occurred September 9–13, 1971, when inmates seized control of the Attica Correctional Facility in New York. The Attica prison riot exposed long-standing issues inside the U.S. corrections system, including overcrowding, racial tensions, poor living conditions and allegations of staff abuse.
The incident began when a dispute over placing two inmates in lockup escalated unexpectedly. Inmates quickly overtook a housing unit, and due to a faulty weld on a security door, were able to expand their control and take 42 staff members hostage. Within hours, 1,281 inmates had control of the prison — nearly the entire population.
Negotiations followed, centered around 28 inmate demands aimed at improving conditions and treatment. Most demands were discussed, but two points stalled negotiations: the inmates’ request for full amnesty and the removal of the facility’s warden. The New York State Prison Commissioner refused these, unwilling to allow inmates to dictate administrative decisions.
The standoff ended violently when state police and correctional officers stormed the prison. The decision to retake Attica by force resulted in 43 deaths — including 33 inmates and 10 staff — the deadliest outcome of any prison riot in American history. Reports indicate that many of the staff fatalities were caused by gunfire from the assaulting officers during the chaotic entry.
The Attica prison riot remains a defining event in corrections history. For today’s correctional officers and leaders, it underscores the critical importance of addressing inmate grievances, maintaining facility infrastructure, and preparing for crisis response. It also serves as a stark reminder of the human cost when systemic issues in corrections go unaddressed.
Lessons from the Attica prison riot
The fallout from Attica reshaped how correctional agencies nationwide approached inmate rights, emergency planning and institutional accountability. Key takeaways include:
- Nationwide correctional policy reforms: The Attica uprising served as a wake-up call, prompting reforms focused on improving prison conditions and protecting inmate rights. The riot’s aftermath influenced legal standards, including the landmark Supreme Court decision Estelle v. Gamble (1976), which held that “deliberate indifference” to a prisoner’s medical needs violates the Eighth Amendment.
- Establishment of crisis negotiation protocols: The prolonged standoff at Attica highlighted the need for structured communication strategies during prison emergencies. In the years that followed, many correctional systems adopted formal crisis negotiation teams and de-escalation protocols to reduce the risk of violence during hostage situations.
- Enhanced training for emergency response: The deadly retaking of the prison exposed critical gaps in tactical response and coordination. Correctional agencies began developing more comprehensive emergency response policies and specialized training for correctional officers and tactical units.
- Proactive grievance management: A core lesson from Attica is the importance of addressing inmate grievances before tensions escalate. The failure to respond to legitimate concerns about overcrowding, abuse, and poor conditions was a key factor in the riot — a warning that correctional leaders must maintain clear channels for communication and accountability within facilities.
The New Mexico State Penitentiary riot: A case study in systemic failure
The New Mexico State Penitentiary riot, which erupted February 2–3, 1980, at the Penitentiary of New Mexico (PNM) near Santa Fe, remains one of the most violent and destructive prison riots in U.S. history.
The uprising began in the early morning hours when inmates in a dormitory overpowered four correctional officers during a routine inspection. The officers were taken hostage, and the riot escalated rapidly as inmates gained full control of the facility. Over the next 36 hours, 12 staff members were held hostage while hundreds of inmates ransacked and burned portions of the prison. Gaps left during an ongoing renovation — combined with access to tools such as blowtorches — allowed inmates to breach secured areas and unleash widespread destruction.
At the time, the facility was operating at 150% of its intended capacity. As with the Attica prison riot, overcrowding, staff misconduct and the absence of a functioning grievance process were major contributors. However, a distinct factor in this riot was the presence of a sanctioned informant system. Inmates labeled as “snitches” had received privileges in exchange for informing on others. During the riot, these individuals were specifically targeted — many were tortured and killed by fellow inmates.
The riot was eventually ended by armed State Police and officers from the Santa Fe Police Department, who entered the facility without encountering organized resistance. While no staff members were killed, several suffered beatings and sexual assaults. In total, 33 inmates were killed and more than 200 injured. Property damage was estimated at over $25 million.
The New Mexico riot underscores the dangerous consequences of overcrowding, weak inmate oversight, and poor correctional infrastructure. For modern correctional leaders, it stands as a critical lesson in the importance of officer safety, secure facility design, and transparent grievance resolution procedures.
Lessons from the 1980 New Mexico Penitentiary riot
The brutality of the New Mexico riot exposed critical failures in facility design, classification systems and informant management. The most important lessons include:
- Risks of poorly managed prison informant systems: The brutal targeting of inmate informants during the riot exposed the dangers of unsupervised or unofficial informant programs. Today, correctional facilities are more cautious in managing confidential sources, emphasizing security, discretion and controlled use of inmate-provided intelligence.
- Importance of emergency preparedness and rapid response: The slow containment of the riot highlighted the need for clear emergency response protocols. Correctional agencies have since prioritized incident command training, tactical planning and interagency coordination to ensure faster and safer responses to prison disturbances.
- Tool control and secure facility design: Inmates used available tools, including blowtorches, to breach secure areas and escalate the destruction. This event reinforced the critical need for strict tool accountability, secure storage procedures and facility designs that limit inmate movement during emergencies.
- Enhanced inmate classification systems: The widespread violence revealed the need to better separate high-risk and predatory inmates from the general population. The riot spurred changes in inmate classification protocols to assess behavioral risk factors and reduce opportunities for targeted violence inside correctional institutions.
The Lucasville prison riot: An 11-day siege with lasting impact
The Lucasville prison riot began on Easter Sunday, April 11, 1993, at the Southern Ohio Correctional Facility. It involved an unusual alliance among rival prison gangs, including the Gangster Disciples, Black Muslims and Aryan Brotherhood, who united against what they perceived as oppressive institutional policies. Over the course of the 11-day siege — one of the longest in U.S. prison history — inmates took one correctional officer and nine fellow prisoners hostage.
The riot was fueled by severe overcrowding, with the facility operating at nearly 200% capacity. Tensions escalated after prison officials attempted to mandate tuberculin skin tests that included alcohol-based injections, which Muslim inmates objected to on religious grounds. Additional grievances included limited access to rehabilitative programming and allegations of staff abuse.
After intense negotiations and widespread media coverage, the riot ended in a negotiated surrender. The outcome was tragic: 10 people were killed — one correctional officer, Robert Vallandingham, and nine inmates.
Lessons learned from the 1993 Lucasville prison riot
Lucasville highlighted the complex interplay of overcrowding, religious rights and gang influence in modern corrections. Key lessons from the 11-day standoff include:
- Respect for religious and cultural practices: Institutional policies must account for religious beliefs to avoid unnecessary conflict. The forced TB testing without religious accommodation was a major flashpoint in this incident, emphasizing the need for cultural and religious sensitivity in correctional settings.
- Gang management in high-security environments: The collaboration of rival gangs underscored the complexity of managing gang dynamics in maximum-security prisons. Today’s corrections leaders place greater emphasis on intelligence gathering, gang validation procedures and controlled housing strategies.
- Value of structured negotiation during prison crises: Despite the violence, the peaceful end to the siege showed that skilled negotiators and measured engagement can be effective tools in crisis resolution — especially during prolonged incidents with lives at stake.
- Media strategy during extended incidents: The Lucasville riot drew national media attention. The event highlighted the importance of consistent messaging, transparency and coordination with public information officers during high-profile correctional emergencies.
- Accountability and post-riot prosecution: Following the riot, the state pursued extensive criminal prosecutions of involved inmates. This reinforced the need for evidence collection, documentation and legal follow-up to maintain order and deter future violence.
- Balancing institutional control with inmate rights: The Lucasville riot serves as a reminder that overcrowding, reduced programming and ignored grievances can destabilize even tightly secured institutions. Correctional leaders must weigh security concerns alongside inmate access to grievance procedures and rehabilitative services.
When was the last prison riot?
The most recent major prison riot in the United States occurred at Lee Correctional Institution in Bishopville, South Carolina, in April 2018. This violent incident left seven inmates dead and several others injured, making it the deadliest U.S. prison riot in 25 years.
The riot involved multiple housing units and hundreds of inmates, with reports indicating that the violence stemmed from ongoing gang disputes and lack of staff intervention. The facility remained on lockdown for an extended period following the outbreak, underscoring systemic issues such as understaffing, contraband trafficking, and gang activity in high-security prisons.
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In the months that followed, the Lee riot became a focal point in a national wave of prison strikes and inmate protests. From August 21 to September 9, 2018 — a coordinated prison strike took place across multiple states. Inmates issued a list of demands including improved living conditions, sentencing reform, better rehabilitation opportunities, and an end to what they described as forced prison labor.
While smaller disturbances have occurred since, the 2018 Lee Correctional Institution riot remains the most recent large-scale prison uprising in the U.S. with significant casualties. It continues to influence ongoing conversations around correctional reform, inmate rights, and institutional safety across the country.
How correctional facilities can prevent prison riots
While today’s prisons may not face the same overcrowding crisis that once plagued the system, the threat of prison riots remains real. The 2018 riot at Lee Correctional Institution in South Carolina — which left seven inmates dead — is a stark reminder that institutional safety can quickly unravel without proper oversight.
Modern correctional facilities must stay vigilant, adapting to evolving risks and recognizing that new threats, including contraband cell phones, gang coordination, and reduced programming, can still trigger unrest. Key focus areas for prevention include:
- Administrative vigilance and emergency readiness: Facility leaders must ensure correctional officers receive ongoing training in emergency response tactics, proper use of equipment and adequate staffing levels to maintain order during high-risk situations.
- Recognition of early warning signs: While digital tablets can supplement inmate programming, they are not a substitute for meaningful engagement. Staff must monitor behavioral shifts and environmental tensions that may indicate pending disturbances.
- Staff training in communication and conflict resolution: Training in emotional intelligence, de-escalation and conflict management can reduce confrontations. Regular, respectful two-way communication between staff and inmates remains one of the most effective ways to prevent violence.
- Consistent rule enforcement: Uneven enforcement breeds resentment. Clear and consistent application of rules helps build structure and legitimacy inside the institution.
- Use of modern technology for prevention and control: Tools such as surveillance analytics, drone detection systems and digital monitoring can enhance situational awareness and early intervention capabilities.
- Understanding evolving riot patterns: Riots today may be shorter in duration but more coordinated due to contraband cell phones and gang communication. Training and intelligence operations must evolve accordingly.
Conclusion
The mass prison riots of the 1950s, 1970s, and 1980s shaped the modern corrections system through painful lessons learned. These events touched nearly every corner of U.S. corrections and changed how we manage institutional safety. Today’s correctional officers owe a debt to those who came before — officers and inmates alike — who experienced the consequences of inaction and inadequate systems.
But remembrance alone is not enough. To prevent future prison riots, correctional leaders and staff must remain committed to learning from history, investing in training, embracing modern tools, and fostering communication. The safety of both staff and inmates depends on it.
