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By Naysha Rivera-Hartley, M.S., Vincent B. Van Hasselt, Ph.D, Gregory S. Tony, Ph.D, Quina Munson, Psy.D, and Ryan A. Black, Ph.D
Correctional officers (COs) work within one of the most demanding environments in public safety. They must maintain continuous situational awareness while managing unpredictable interpersonal dynamics, institutional safety risks and concerns, and exposure to violence. Unlike other public safety roles, COs often work in confined environments where tensions run high, tend to escalate rapidly, and where officers must have repeated interactions with the same individuals over extended periods of time. These conditions create unique psychological demands that can affect both the individual well-being of the CO and may contribute to organizational dysfunction.
Correctional staff are exposed to cumulative and chronic stress exposure, incidents that result in vicarious trauma or moral injury, and operational or systemic pressures that extend beyond the critical incidents that are pervasive in these settings. Not surprisingly, at the same time, agencies nationwide are experiencing staffing shortages, increased turnover, and heavy reliance on mandatory overtime to maintain minimum operational staffing levels.
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Peer support programs have been utilized within public safety and first responder organizations for quite some time. However, they have recently emerged as a promising strategy to address psychological stress within correctional facilities. The challenge is that, due to the unique demands of a jail or prison setting, a peer support program designed for police officers, fire/EMS personnel, or healthcare workers may not fully address the specific needs and realities faced daily by COs. The Peers as Law Enforcement Support - Corrections (PALS-C) program was developed to address this need. Adapted from the original Peers as Law Enforcement Support (PALS) model developed by Vincent B. Van Hasselt, Ph.D.,¹ PALS-C applies the principles of structured peer support to correctional facilities.
The program provides training designed to equip correctional staff with the necessary skills to recognize signs and symptoms of augmented psychological distress among themselves as well as their colleagues, provide confidential peer support, and facilitate access to professional resources when appropriate. This article describes the rationale for peer support programs for corrections, outlines the core elements of the PALS-C program, and provides ready-to-implement guidance for agencies interested in implementing peer support initiatives.
Occupational stress in correctional facilities
COs experience a wide range of occupational stressors that are vastly different from those faced by road patrol officers or fire personnel. Within correctional settings, COs must maintain awareness of potential threats while navigating complex situational interactions with not only inmates, but also staff and administrative expectations. The need to maintain prolonged alertness to potential danger can lead to overuse of the body’s core regulatory networks. This high level of prolonged arousal and chronic stress has the potential to develop into catastrophic physiological and psychological impairment.
Research has consistently shown that correctional personnel experience elevated levels of psychological stress compared to many other first responder groups. According to Spinaris et al.,² a national study found that 27% of correctional staff met criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder compared to the general population’s rate of 6–8%. Similarly, Miller-Anguay et al.³ found that results from the National Wellness Survey for Public Safety Personnel specific to COs (N = 190) revealed high levels of both occupational and individual stressors, with descriptive analyses indicating that approximately one-third of officers reported clinically significant rates of anxiety (39.5%), depression (36.3%), and posttraumatic stress disorder (28%), rates that exceed civilian populations.
In addition to exposure to violence and institutional disharmony, COs face organizational demands such as administrative scrutiny, disciplinary procedures, and role conflicts that can contribute to decreased job satisfaction and emotional depletion, resulting in burnout that has been characterized in the literature as “exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy.”⁴
More recently, systemic issues such as staffing shortages and abysmal recruitment efforts have intensified the pressure imposed on correctional staff, particularly in facilities with higher inmate-to-officer ratios.⁵ Officers mandated to work overtime or extended hours are faced with limited opportunities to recover between shifts. These disruptions cause sleep pattern deficiencies that present as difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or early morning awakenings, contributing to chronic fatigue. High turnover rates further compound the problem when experienced COs leave the organization and remaining staff are tasked with additional responsibilities.
Suicide risk and mental health concerns among correctional personnel
Research examining correctional personnel has identified significant levels of suicidal ideation or intent within this group. For example, Ricciardelli et al.⁶ found that approximately 20% of COs reported lifetime suicide planning and 10% reported a suicide attempt. Other studies have noted rates of suicidal ideation as high as 27%, attributed to chronic occupational stress, indicating the psychological burden and distress experienced by COs.⁶
Despite these concerns, many COs remain reluctant to seek mental health services. Issues of confidentiality, concerns about career repercussions, and mental health stigma prolong suffering and impede officers from obtaining treatment through traditional resources such as EAP, mental health clinicians, or clergy. Peer support programs can help address this gap by providing confidential support from trusted colleagues who understand the day-to-day realities of correctional work.
Neurobiology of stress and hypervigilance
Prolonged exposure to threatening or unpredictable environments can result in persistent activation of the brain’s stress-response systems. In correctional settings, where officers must maintain alertness to potential violence, this sustained vigilance can lead to chronic overuse of the brain’s regulatory network. Over time, this leads to hypervigilance, sleep disturbances, irritability, and emotional exhaustion. Trauma researchers have noted that when the brain’s regulatory systems remain in a prolonged state of heightened arousal, individuals experience difficulty returning to baseline levels of calmness.⁷⁸ Understanding how chronic stress affects physiological and psychological functioning helps explain why COs may benefit from peer support programs in their agencies.
The PALS-C model
Similar to the original PALS model, PALS-C integrates principles of crisis intervention, active listening, and trauma-informed communication. The program was developed as a more expansive effort to promote and improve psychological wellness within correctional facilities by training selected officers to serve as peer support members. While it is made clear that peer support volunteers are not being trained to replace professional mental health providers, they are instructed in the signs and symptoms of mental illness. Further, they can offer interventions to promote symptom amelioration or triage the individual to a professional clinician.
Peer support members are taught how to recognize signs of distress, provide supportive and nonjudgmental communication, and allow space for venting of occupational stressors, personal crises, or exposure to traumatic events. Recognizing that correctional environments present distinct cultural and operational challenges, the PALS-C model provides a framework specific to these environments.
Peer supporters are selected from within the correctional workforce based on their reputation for professionalism, integrity, and trustworthiness. Credibility within the institution is essential for building the trust necessary for peer support programs to function effectively. Like a mental health clinician’s ethical code of conduct, confidentiality is of the utmost importance in maintaining a program that is utilized by those who need it. This is the hallmark of any successful program, and team member selection is grounded in this principle.
Training emphasizes confidentiality within ethical and legal limits. Because concerns about privacy frequently inhibit or deter COs from seeking help, peer support members are taught how to clearly communicate the boundaries of confidentiality and the circumstances under which information must be reported, such as imminent danger to self or others.
The training curriculum focuses on six modules that are taught over a period of two eight-hour days: Active listening, depression, substance use, suicide awareness, posttraumatic stress disorder and anxiety, and resilience. Training is delivered in a didactic format with videos and scenario-based role plays to practice learned skills.
Throughout the training, peer support members are taught how to:
- Engage in meaningful conversation facilitated by active listening
- Recognize the signs of burnout and cumulative stress that contribute to depression and other psychological impairment
- Distinguish between acute stress and trauma response
- Address sleep deprivation and improve sleep hygiene
- Understand and recognize problematic substance use as a coping mechanism
- Determine when and how to refer individuals to trusted professionals familiar with first responder mental health.
Implementing a peer support program in correctional agencies
Agencies interested in implementing a peer support program can benefit from a structured approach. This includes obtaining leadership support, careful selection of peer support team members, training for curriculum development or sourcing subject-matter experts, and establishing program structure and expectations.
Successful peer support programs require visible support and endorsement from agency leadership. When administrators openly support officer mental wellness initiatives, participation and acceptance increase. Peer support member selection should be restricted to individuals who are widely respected within the agency and who demonstrate strong interpersonal skills. Credibility and trustworthiness are essential elements for effective peer support.
Peer supporters should receive training at minimum biannually in communication skills, crisis awareness, and referral policies. They must understand the importance of confidentiality and model emotional regulation. This includes seeking support themselves when needed. Program policies help build trust and ensure continuity in implementation.
Program evaluation and continuous improvement
When it comes to peer support programs, no agency should settle for the status quo. Ongoing evaluation improves program effectiveness. Regular team meetings allow peer supporters to discuss trends and concerns while maintaining confidentiality. Monthly meetings are recommended to identify emerging wellness issues within the agency.
For example, if multiple COs are reporting sleep disturbances related to overtime schedules, the peer support team may recommend educational sessions focused on sleep hygiene and fatigue management. Similarly, if peer supporters observe increased reports of self-medicating through alcohol or other substances, the program may prioritize training addressing substance use and coping strategies. These sessions should be open to all personnel, allowing staff to become familiar with peer support members and identify trusted points of contact.
Conclusion
COs work in environments characterized by chronic stress exposure, institutional rigidity, and increasing operational demands. Staffing shortages, mandatory overtime, and exposure to violence significantly affect officer mental wellness and functioning.
Peer support programs such as PALS-C, designed specifically for correctional facilities, provide evidence-informed principles that incorporate the realities of correctional work. By emphasizing credibility, confidentiality, and culturally relevant communication, these programs are expected to play an increasingly important role in supporting correctional personnel.
References
- Van Hasselt VB, et al. Peers as law enforcement support (PALS): An early prevention program. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 2019;48:1-5.
- Spinaris CG, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in United States corrections professionals. Desert Waters Correctional Outreach; 2012.
- Miller-Anguay M, Black RA, Bourke ML, Van Hasselt VB, Blalock JR. Correctional officers: Findings from the national wellness survey for public safety personnel. In press; 2025.
- Maslach C, Schaufeli WB, Leiter MP. Job burnout. Annu Rev Psychol. 2001;52:397-422.
- Ellison JM, Caudill JW. Working on local time. J Crim Justice. 2020;70:101717.
- Ricciardelli RP, McKendy LP, Jamshidi LP, Carleton RNP. Mental health disorders and suicidal behaviors among correctional workers. J Occup Environ Med. 2022;64(6):504-509.
- Perry BD, Pollard R. Homeostasis, stress, trauma, and adaptation. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 1998;7(1):33-51.
- van der Kolk B. The body keeps the score. Penguin US; 2014.
About the authors
Naysha Rivera-Hartley is a clinical psychology doctoral candidate, lead research coordinator of the First Responder Research and Training Program, and trauma therapist at Nova Southeastern University in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. She can be reached at nr1084@mynsu.nova.edu.
Vincent Van Hasselt is a psychology professor and director of the First Responder Research and Training Program at Nova Southeastern University in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and is a reserve deputy sheriff with the Broward County Sheriff’s Office. He can be reached at vanhasse@nova.edu.
Gregory Tony is the sheriff of the Broward County Sheriff’s Office. He can be reached at gregory@doctorgregorytony.com.
Quina Munson is a licensed clinical psychologist and supervisor at the Miami-Dade County Corrections and Rehabilitation Department. She can be reached at quina.munson@miamidade.gov.
Ryan Black is an associate professor at Nova Southeastern University in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. He can be reached at blackrya@nova.edu.